Process or Result
Introduction
One culture might place the greater emphasis on the process by which goals are achieved, while another culture places the greater emphasis on the goal itself, regardless of how it's achieved. Therefore, cultures can be process oriented (relying often on deductive logic) or result oriented (relying often on inductive logic). In addition, cultures may more associate in their thought processing; that is, they do things based on the way they know things always have been done, or how they are already being done in similar situation.
Argentina
As with other Latinos, there is a strong reliance on the deductive process: how things arc being done is as important as the final result. This is evident among the well-educated business elite. But Argentines, as we noted, are most comfortable using personal experience in order to make or justify a decision. While many Argentine businesspeople are influenced by facts and logic, persuasion is most successful when it confirms already existing beliefs.
America
In negotiations, points are made by the accumulation of objective facts. These are sometimes biased by faith in the ideologies of democracy, capitalism, and consumerism, but seldom by the subjective feelings of the participants.
Australia
Australians are open to evidence that has been reached through empirical research or deductive or inductive methods. They are rational and linear thinkers and rely on logic and proof as criteria for action. There is minimal reliance on subjective experience if facts prove otherwise: in fact. one's subjective experience will be identified and challenged quickly as an insubstantial reason for considering something.
China
The Chinese. as is the case with all Asian peoples, are fully capable of employing (and do employ) meticulous logic. whether deductively or inductively; however, that is not necessarily the only process used to think things through, to make a case for something, or to understand people or events. A connection is made to the way similar situations have turned out, and in that sense, the Chinese also use associative, subjective logic. However. all forms of logic are used in a more holistic way in Asia. so that while process and experience are important steps in arriving at a conclusion, the path may not be linear or progressive. This is related to the polychronic nature of the culture: things occur. thought patterns included. not necessarily in a sequential or progressive way, but in a holistic way. In other words, the elements needed to make decisions are laid out ex positionally, when and as the circumstances require it, and add up to a conclusion only when viewed "at once:' as if suddenly from forty thousand feel. Do not search for sequence: search for all the facts that must be brought forward. as the situation deems it. and then sit back and evaluate the total result. (This is one reason why it is essential in China to take good notes at every meeting! What people mean may not be clear at the table. but only upon later contemplation.)
Colombia
As do other Latinos, Colombians rely strongly on the deductive process: how things are done being more important than the final result. This is evident among the well-educated business elite. But Colombians are also very subjective, and will often fall back on what they personally believe in order to make or justify a decision. While many Colombian businesspeople are influenced by facts and logic, persuasion is best when it confirms already existing beliefs.
Congo
The interpretation of events and the determination of truth and right and wrong in Congolese society are context-bound, and not a philosophical search for absolutes. Decisions and actions therefore may be the result of reasoning that is not directed at a determination of truth, but rather context-based '"correctness" based on similar experiences. Combine this with a tendency to rely on subjective experience. and the Congolese mind is processing information. for the most part. in a different way than the Western mind. In fact, because of their negative experience with Western exploitation, it may he a struggle sometimes for most Africans-Congolese or otherwise-to even he open to Western ideas.
Egypt
Islamic law, and the complex study of Islam that developed in the Muslim world into its own field of scholastic inquiry, is fundamentally different from Western Greco-Roman philosophies of knowing. In Islam, interpretation and truth are dependent upon "analogous" reasoning, while in the West, such inquiry is based more on "argument" (proving and disproving). Decisions and actions therefore may be the result of reasoning that is not directed at a determination of truth, but rather context-based "correctness" based on similar experiences, often with the strict Islamic code as the only context. Combine this with a tendency to rely also on subjective experience, and the traditional Arab mind is processing information, for the most part, in a different way than the Western mind. Nevertheless, because of the familiarity with the West, there is an openness to new ideas and new ways of thinking in Egypt, but things will always be judged according to their subjective benefit, and the degree to which they support or challenge both personal beliefs and Islamic ideas.
England
Perhaps precisely because the British have managed to devise a culture in which two so opposite traditions can still live and thrive side by side, it should not be surprising that the dominant thought orientation is one of inductive experience based on precedent, not a search for Platonic ideals or philosophical correctness. What appeals to the English is what has worked in the past: precedence. There is neither the (French) orientation to logical form, nor the (German) orientation to provable method; rather, practical past empirical success, however achieved, is the reason for doing things a certain way. The English are practical, empirical, and results oriented; therefore, no newer logic or better result sways them on its own if they are already satisfied with the results they have painstakingly achieved and currently enjoy.
France
One of the most important aspects of French culture, therefore, is the belief in the ability of the rational mind, when correctly applied, to overcome problems and find solutions. The philosophical justifications for the _ch Revolution were found in a group of French thinkers known as the Philosophies; during the Revolution, that bastion to French Catholic faith. Notre-Dame, was renamed the Temple of Rational Thought. Descartes. the great French philosopher (who, no coincidence here, was also a mathematician) is remembered for his phrase "Je pense, donc je suis" ("I think. therefore I am").
Cartesian thought, and the rational application of deductive logic, is a skill that French schoolchildren learn throughout all their studies. Therefore, the process or way in which they think is often more important than the outcomes or conclusion of their thoughts, for they need not worry about the conclusion if the process is correct. The joke in France is that two French managers are discussing the merits of a business plan, and one says to the other, "Well, I think it will work in practice. . . but it will never work in theory," This deductive method results in an enormous emphasis on why things are done, sometimes resulting in a masterful work of art, a beautifully executed speech, or an idea with questionable practical application. All are equally admired in France.
Germany
If the French are concerned about "why" things are being done as they are, the Germans are concerned about "how" (leaving the Americans and the British to the "what," "when," and "where"). The objectivist traditions referred to earlier make Germans very linear thinkers, with a desire for facts, figures, details, and evidence. (Just look at the advertising in Germany: products and services are rarely sold solely on their emotional appeal; rather, facts and figures make up the justification for the purchase.)
India
Associative and subjective experience-based logic predominates in most situations, but Indians often judge results according to the processes of Western logic that have become ingrained in the culture since the British were in control. This can result in much examination of issues, the outcome of which will still often be based on intuition, personal he1icfs, and past personal experience.
Indonesia
Indonesians, as is the case with all Asian peoples, are fully capable of employing (and do employing) meticulous logic, whether deductively or inductively; however, that is not necessarily the only process used to think things through, to make a case for something, or to understand people or events, A connection is made with similar situations, and Indonesians rely primarily on this associative, subjective logic.
Chinese Indonesians often apply this in a holistic, non sequential way: process and experience are important steps in arriving at a conclusion, but the path may not be linear or progressive. This is related to the polychronio nature of the culture: things occur, thought patters included, not necessarily in a sequential or progressive way, but in a holistic way. In other Words, the elements needed to make decisions are laid out ex positionally, when and as the circumstances require it, and add up to a conclusion only when viewed "at onee:' a~ if suddenly from forty thousand feet. Muslim Indonesians will also do this, but more because it is an effective way to avoid conflict if you don't want to talk about certain things at a certain time, Well-educated Indonesians employ an of these methods, with well-honed sophistication.
Italy
As with other Latin cultures, there is a strong reliance on the deductive process: how things are being done may be more important than the final result. Therefore, in Italy, things must appear as good as they essentially need to be; however, because there is an inherent disbelief in the effectiveness of human action, there is sometimes a greater emphasis placed on the appearance of things than on how they actually are. (Mussolini was said to have arranged for the same troops to march around the square over and over again to give the appearance he had more soldiers than he really did.) Presentations must be beautifully and artfully packaged. Individuals must look good: the package may be more important than what's inside.
But Italians are also associative in their logic, based on what has worked with others in similar situations (even when the two situations may not be directly related to each other). Therefore, despite the obvious merits of an idea, if it doesn't fit with an individual's subjective experience or opinion, it is often rejected. In addition, the risk-averse nature of Italian culture means much information and detail must be analyzed. For these reasons, Italians may not understand or be able to follow through with the actions necessary to put the plans in place. It is therefore all the more important for non-Italians to stay involved with them, helping them to implement what has been agreed to.
Japan
The Japanese, as is the case with all Asian peoples, are fully capable of employing (and do employ) meticulous logic, whether deductively or inductively; however, that is not necessarily the only process used to evaluate things, to make a case for something, or to understand an issue. A connection is made to other similar circumstances, and in that sense, the Japanese also use associative, subjective logic. However, all forms of logic are used in a more holistic way in Asia. so that while process and experience are important steps in arriving at a conclusion, the path may not be linear or progressive. This is related to the polychronic (or not timebound) nature of the culture: things occur, thought patterns included, not necessarily in a sequential or progressive way, but in a more holistic way.
Do not search for sequence: search for all the facts that must be brought forward, as the situation deems it, and then sit back and evaluate the total result. (This is one reason why it is essential in Asia, Japan included, to take good notes at every meeting! What people mean may not be clear at the table. but may be upon later contemplation.)
Nigeria
Islamic law, and the complex study of Ilam that developed in the Muslim world into its own field of scholastic inquiry, is fundamentally different from Western Greco-Roman philosophies of knowing. In Islam, interpretation and truth are dependent upon "analogous" reasoning, while in the West, such inquiry is based more on "argument'" (proving and disproving). Decisions and actions therefore may be the result of reasoning that is not directed at a determination of truth, but rather context-based correctness based on similar experiences, often with strict Islamic experience, for both Muslims and non-Muslims, and the Nigerian mind is processing information. for the most part. in a different way than the Western mind: in fact. because of their negative experience with Western exploitation, it may be a struggle sometimes for most Africans--West, Nigerian. or otherwise-to even be open to Western ideas.
Philippines
Filipinos, perhaps because of their experience with the West, use a combination of Latin European and deductive logic, American inductive logic, and indigenous Philippine associative logic. If things do not fit with their own subjective experience and beliefs, it may be difficult to get Filipinos to agree to them. The polychronic nature of society additionally provides a holistic approach to a problem solving, where things may not looked at systematically or sequentially.
Poland
Subjective experience, belief, and judgment are as important as proof, evidence, and logic. While Poles admired the intellectual developments of the west, their own experience (the Polish "renaissance" of the sixteenth century, exemplified by such figures as the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, and increased freedom for certain minority groups -- i.e., the Jews) had limited impact on the ultimate fate of their country in the face of greater European events. Therefore, while facts and figures, proof and logic count, they rarely tip the scale against feeling, intuition, belief, and associative experience.
Russia
Subjective experience, belief, and judgment are probably more important than evidence and logic, Russians admire the intellectual developments of the West, but do not trust them. There fore, while facts and figures, proof and logic count, they rarely tip the scale against feeling, intuition, and associative experience. This will make for a repetitive kind of bargaining, which will have little impact on the outcome, the outcome instead being determined by other factors, such as decision makers and conditions or situations beyond your control.
Saudi Arabia
Islamic law, and the complex study of Islam that developed in the Muslim world into its own field of scholastic inquiry, is fundamentally different from Western Greco-Roman philosophies of knowing. In Islam, interpretation and truth are dependent upon "analogous" reasoning, while in the West, such inquiry is based more on "argument" (proving and disproving). Decisions and actions therefore may be the result of reasoning that is not directed at a determination of truth, but rather context-based "correctness," based on similar experiences, often with strict Islamic code as the only context. Combine this with a tendency to rely also on subjective experience, and the Arab mind is processing information, for the most part, in a different way than the Western mind.
Slovenia
Subjective experience, belief, and associative judgment play the more powerful roles in decision making, although to be fair, among the better educated, there is an appreciation for and reliance upon facts, numbers, logic, and rationalism as criteria for decision making and action.
Sweden
Swedes need to see the rationale for doing something, and are usually not convinced with merely practical results from the past. Moreover, emotional expression does nothing to reinforce the facts; in fact, emotions are usually avoided in most Swedish scenarios, and remaining cool and under control is always seen as the smarter way to go.